Commentary: Yeh-Shen
History of Yeh-Hsien
Probably the first recorded version (c. 850-960 C.E. [1]) of a Cinderella tale, Yeh-Hsien was first written down by Tuan Ch’eng Shih[2], though the story itself appears to come from aborigines in the extreme south. Surprisingly, the story was largely ignored until 1911, when attention was drawn to it by Japanese folklorist K. Minakata [3].
In contrast to many other early folklorists, Tuan Ch’eng Shih not only made no effort to ‘literise’ tales but also went to great effort to preserve the authenticity of his collections. In the case of Yeh-Hsien, this has provided a clean text, though it must be noted that in other tales he has ‘corrected’ stories, believing that later versions, even those collected from a different region, are bastardisations of earlier, ‘authentic’ tales.
But Ch’eng Shih’s Cinderella is particularly interesting, providing more motivations and explanations etc. than common, more detail about Yeh-hsien (good at making pottery on the wheel) giving her more character (consider today's modern, snappy one-lining protagonists) than our modern cinderellas.
About Yeh-Hsien
Certain details of this tale’s setting are unique. While European Cinderellas usually involve a mother or step-mother, a sometimes orphaned and poor girl, and a wish-granting spirit. Yeh-Hsien, however, contains elements and motivations outside the norm. Interestingly, the story continues past the ‘happily ever after’, detailing the fate of the step family—flying stones, then the tomb of the distressed women, prayed to by bachelors who then succeeded with whomever they sought to court; the king used the bones for a year then, when they stopped answering, buried them royally by the sea; during a mutiny a general opened them up to provide for his army; finally, the bones were washed away by the sea.
Over time, many tellings have lost the detail of the cave, that Yeh-Hsien’s father had two wives , and that the name of the neighbouring island kingdom (T’o’han), and. It’s possible that such details have been omitted in an attempt to refine the story (consider Perrault’s Cendrillion). But each of these details has its own significance in terms of placing the story and learning about its origins. First, we shall deal with the cave.
In the Tuan Ch’eng Shih version, the story begins:
Among the people of the south there is a tradition that before the Ch'in and Han dynasties there was a cave-master called Wu. The aborigines called the place the Wu cave.
On first reading, ‘cave’ is surprising, if not a little disturbing. As we continue to read the story, it becomes clear that Yeh-Hsien’s home is not literally a cave. Why, then, such a beginning?
According to Arthur Waley[4], aborigines in the south of China did live in caves but, when this tale was recorded (c. 9th century), the aborigines had come to live in small villages and ‘cave owner’ had come to mean ‘in the native lands’, i.e. it was used in an ethnic sense rather than a literal one.
With regard to Yeh-Hsien’s father and his two wives:
The aborigines called the place the Wu cave. He married two wives. One wife died...She had a daughter Yeh-hsien...After some years the father died, and she was ill-treated by her step-mother...
Some versions describe Yeh-Hsien’s step-mother as her father’s ‘co-wife’. Historical record shows us that Chinese men took only one wife. Chiefs and high ranking aborigines in the south, however, were sometimes documented as taking more than one wife, and modern aborigines have been shown to have more than one wife also, adding to the idea of the tale’s provenance being from this area.
It has been suggested that Yeh-Hsien is set in what is now modern day Nan-ning, approximately 100 miles north of the frontiers of Annam. Much of this comes from anecdotal evidence; Waley points out that many of the elements in the tale, particularly the existence of a cave-master Wu[5] and a great festival around springtime are both historically recorded facts about the region. But here we must be wary of euhemerism, i.e. a method of rationalising interpretation such that accounts (particularly mythological accounts) are seen as a reflection of true historical events shaped through retelling and societal values. So, although Waley provides an interesting argument, I suggest retaining a healthy amount of scepticism with regard to his notes on this story.
Before we continue, I’d like to take a moment to talk about how fairy tales circulated within China during this time. As we know, Tuan Ch’eng Shih collected Yeh-Hsien from a family servant; folk and fairy stories often reached the upper classes in this way, travelling through the tongues of wet nurses, singing girls, and personal valets. If someone in a higher class was taken with such a story, they would then write it down, possibly refining and tweaking it. Eventually, such writings were adapted into plays and performances, many of which were attended by commoners.
Fish
One of the defining elements of a Cinderella story is a magical, wish-granting thing. In many cases, the wish-granter is associated with the heroine’s dead mother[6], and may take a variety of forms, including but not limited to a cow, a set of bones, a fish, and a tree. The cow and tree appear to be the most common, though Yeh-Hsien shares the distinction of using a fish with a Portuguese version of the story [7].
In some versions of the story, it is the spirit of Yeh-Hsien’s dead mother that speaks to her; in some the wizened old man tells her the fish was the spirit of her dead mother; and in others no mention of Yeh-Hsien’s dead mother is made. The story usually makes note of the fish’s luminous golden eyes or golden colour along with its length and fatness. The practice of keeping carp (koi) is not a new one, and it is likely this is the type of fish to which the story refers.
The fish, especially the carp is associated with prosperity (the Chinese character for ‘fish’ may also be translated as ‘abundance’). But the carp is especially known for its strength and bravery also, so perceived because it swims against the current. Together, these traits make the role of the fish and its bones in the story—bringing comfort and solace, encouraging strength and bravery, and supplying Yeh-Hsien with necessary riches and the ever present footwear—particularly fitting.
About Cinderella
Finally, a brief note on Cinderella, arguably the world’s most famous fairy tale. Cinderella stories appeal to almost everyone. But why the ongoing appeal? Why are there literally hundreds of versions of the fairy tale from a plethora of countries? Why has it spawned books, plays, films, and poetry?
Some scholars say that in the modern world, Cinderella has been reduced to something between a rags-to-riches story and a makeover show, with the heroine becoming nothing more than an object, a girl who waits for the prince to show up, then, without thought, rides away into the happily ever after. The 1950s Disney version of the story certainly supports this, as Cinderella’s work is accomplished by birds and mice; her personality is thin and wanting, with the film’s character provided by two mice and the ugly stepsistsers; and her transformation is effected by the fairy godmother. In short, the Disney Cinderella has little to do except wish and look pretty. But real women know this already, and know, moreover, that life is not simply wishing and hoping and singing, yet they still return to the myriad Cinderella stories of the modern world. Why? Is it some form of escapism?
When we strip the fairy tale of its outer elements, with what are we left? An unhappy, sometimes motherless, sometimes orphaned girl. A life of drudgery. Change. A happy ending. Seen this way, the story no longer appears superficial but rather as a real life, a true life to which most people can relate—except that in real life, we’re told, there are no happy endings.
But what if there were? And how do I get one?
These are the questions which Cinderella forces us to ask. She digs deep into our consciousness, reminding us that we, too, are marking time[8], planning and working toward our own happy ending—a raise, a family, a nicer house, a batch of picture-perfect Julia Child style scones. And while she reminds us of this, she shows us that such an ending is possible, despite the ugly stepsisters, the cruel mother/step-mother, despite even the unknown future with its choice between marriage and independence. Cinderella tells us that we are not alone, that others have walked before us and succeeded, and that we, too, will succeed.
Let us consider an earlier point here: there are literally hundreds of Cinderella stories from all over the world. Why? If the earliest recorded version of the story is Yeh-Hsien[9], then how did it travel forth into the world? Was it carried upon the backs of traders? There is no clear answer, but I think not. Tales are spread about by people, true, but Cinderella stories are so far flung that it seems unlikely they can all be traced back to one or two early sources.
Carl Jung described the theory of the collective unconscious, a part of the psyche which does not “owe its existence to personal experience and consequently is not a personal acquisition…[10]”. It is derived from ancestral memory and experience—i.e., experiences all humanity shares. Humans recognise story patterns; tales seem so familiar to us because we remember them as part of this collective unconscious. It is not unreasonable then, to suggest that certain stories and explanations will be ubiquitous amongst humans, and Cinderella is an excellent example of this.
Finally, a note on Bruno Bettleheim and his book, The Uses of Enchantment. A Freudian, Bettelheim described fairy tales as a ‘soul journey’ in which children learn about themselves. Through tales, children are able to identify and talk through certain emotions and fears. According to Maria Tatar, “Fairy tales connect with all kinds of adult secrets…They tell children about death, which is something that adults talk about in hushed tones. They tell them about romance and marriage and in some cases, they'll tell them about sex and violence.[11]" When children are deprived of such a fantasy world, they create their own—massively multiplayer online games are a good example of this.
Returning to Cinderella—it is the original underdog story, the fairy tale that speaks to our fears, hopes, and dreams. We recognise it from variant to variant, we identify with it, and we learn through it.
Notes: Everyone knows the story of little cinder-girl, as Ashenputtel, as Yeh-Hsien, as Cendrillion, as Rhodopsis, as Anne de Fernandez. In the following weeks, I’ll be posting several versions of the story, along with a little history about the authors associated with each. Note that the tale of Rhodopsis is particularly interesting—from around the 6th century B.C. it is the other noted ‘origin story’ of Cinderella.
I have made no notes on Cinderella’s slippers in this commentary. As much of the scholarship regarding the importance of her footwear references Perrault, I will write about it after I have posted Cendrillion.
Footnotes:
[1] Waley, p.1
[2] ibid.
[3] ibid.
[4] ibid.
[5]Wu was the name of a rebellion leader in the extreme south, around the area of modern day Nan-ning, Kwangsi province.
[6] Heidi Anne Heiner, Tales Similar to Cinderella.
[7]ibid.
[8]See my notes on the princess and the role of the heroine in Mother Holle: Commentary.
[9]The tale of Rhodopis, from around the 6th century B.C. is the other noted ‘origin story’ of Cinderella.
[10]Carl G. Jung, excerpted from http://www.timestar.org/collective.htm
[11]Maria Tatar, Harvard Gazette.
References:
Beth Potier, Harvard Gazette, Once Upon A Time: Maria Tatar's 'Annotated Classic Fairy Tales' offers new insights on familiar old tales...http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/2003/04.10/18-tatar.html
Waley, Arthur, 1947, The Chinese Cinderella Story, Folklore, Vol. 58, No. 1, pp. 226-238. Text kindly provided by JSTOR.
Terri Windling, 2007,Ashes, Blood, and the Slipper of Glass, Journal of Mythic Arts, Endicott Studio, pp1-2, http://www.endicott-studio.com/rdrm/forashs.html
Heidi Anne Heiner, Tales Similar to Cinderella, http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/cinderella/other.html
Foley, Louis,1954, A Princess And Her Magic Footwear, The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 38 No. 8., pp.412-415. Text kindly provided by JSTOR.
Dr. Rouhier Willoughby, http://www.uky.edu/~jrouhie/rae370_web4.html
Jung, Carl G., The Archetypes And The Collective Unconscious. Text kindly provided by http://www.timestar.org/collective.htm